Ungulates

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Ungulates provide a large percentage of the recreational opportunities for wildlife enthusiasts in the State of Montana. Hunting, wildlife viewing, and photography generate economic benefits in excess of $450 million annually. However, recreational activities have the potential not only to displace ungulates to private land where they may cause damage, but also to have negative direct and indirect effects to the populations themselves. During winter, many ungulates are seasonally confined to restricted geographic areas with limited forage resources. In these conditions, physiological adaptations and behavioral adaptations tend to reduce energy requirements. Despite lowered metabolic and activity rates, most wintering ungulates normally lose weight. Responses of ungulates to human recreation during this critical period range from apparent disinterest to flight, but every response has a cost in energy consumption. Snowmobiles have received the most attention compared to other wintertime disturbances, and the majority of reports dwell on negative aspects of snowmobile traffic. However, snowmobiles appear less distressing than cross-country skiers; and for several ungulate species, the greatest negative responses were measured for unpredictable or erratic occurrences. In addition to increasing energy costs for wintering animals, recreational activity can result in displacement to less desirable habitats, or in some situations, to tolerance of urban developments. Tendencies to habituation vary by species, but habituated ungulates are almost always undesirable. Managers can provide an important contribution to energy conservation by reducing or eliminating disturbance of wintering ungulates and restricting recreational use of spring ranges that are important for assuring recovery from winter weight loss. During summer, the biological focus for ungulates includes restoring the winter-depleted body condition and accumulating new fat reserves. In addition, females must support young of the year and males meet the energy demands of horn and antler growth. The potential for impacts increase and options for acquiring high-quality nutrition, with the least possible effort, decline as the size of the area affected by recreationists expands to fill an increasing proportion of the summer range. Disturbance of the highly productive seeps and wet sites may cause animals to withdraw to less productive areas. In addition, ungulates may be especially vulnerable to disturbance around special habitat features, such as salt licks. Persistently high levels of recreational use and the proximity to human population centers is predicted to impact reproductive performance of ungulate populations, but little direct research at this level of disturbance has been reported. Recreational traffic on and off roads has been linked with high rates of establishment and spread of noxious weeds in wildlife habitat. The importance of summer range to most ungulate populations has gone unrecognized for many years. It is apparent, however, that managers can contribute substantially to the health, productivity, and survival of these populations by reducing human disturbances to summering animals. Big game hunting has more immediate effects on ungulate population densities and structures than any other recreational activity. Hunting season security and management affects short and long-term hunting opportunities. Managers of public lands control only a few of the potential variables that contribute to security, including retention of important vegetative cover, travel management, and enforcement of travel regulations. There is a strong relationship between adequate security and predicted buck/bull carryover, but excessive hunter numbers will overwhelm any level of security. Hunting also has the potential to negatively affect herd productivity as mature males are lost from populations. Violations of ethical considerations, including the concept of “fair chase” and the perception of the “sportsman” in the public mind, can increase ungulate vulnerability as well as influence social acceptance of the sport of hunting. Pursuit of pronghorns with ORVs and killing of trophy animals within game farm exclosures are presented as ethical violations.

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ELECTRONIC FILE - Zoology

Suggested citation:
Canfield, J. E., L. J. Lyon, J. M. Hillis, and M. J. Thompson. 1999. Ungulates. Pages 6.1-6.25 in G. Joslin and H. Youmans, coordinators. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: A Review for Montana. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society. 307pp.

SWAP (2/19/2016) citation (with slight correction):
Canfield JE, Lyon LJ, Hillis JM, Thompson MJ. 1999. Ungulates. In: Joslin G, Youmans H, editors. Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: a review for Montana. Helena (MT): Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society, Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife. p. 6.1–6.25. [accessed 2016 Feb 03]. http://www.montanatws.org/PDF%20Files/6ung.pdf